Regional disparities in insurance-covered cognitive behavioural therapy in Japan: a nationwide cross-sectional study using National Database Open Data, 2015-2023

Clinical Snapshot

Key Findings

• P Value: Not reported

• Effect Size: 375-fold difference in population-adjusted CBT utilisation between highest (Okayama: 370.96/100,000) and lowest (Kumamoto: 0.99/100,000) prefectures

• Primary Outcome: 38,045 total CBT claims with 8,299 patients in FY2023, representing 0.14% of estimated psychiatric patients

• Nnt Or Sensitivity: Coefficient of variation 174.8% among 34 measurable prefectures indicating extreme regional variation

• Confidence Interval: Not reported

Clinical Application

Findings highlight systemic barriers to CBT access that require policy-level interventions rather than individual clinical decisions Relevant to Australian Medicare-subsidised psychological therapy programs, particularly regarding regional access disparities and the role of different provider types in service delivery Healthcare policymakers and mental health clinicians interested in psychological therapy access patterns

Abstract

OBJECTIVES: Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is recommended as a first-line treatment for depression and anxiety disorders, but its utilisation under Japan's national health insurance remains poorly understood. This study aimed to describe CBT utilisation patterns, quantify regional disparities across prefectures and analyse temporal trends from fiscal year (FY)2015 to FY2023. DESIGN: This was a nationwide repeated cross-sectional study. SETTING: Japan's National Database of Health Insurance Claims and Specific Health Checkups Open Data (NDB Open Data), FY2015-2023. PARTICIPANTS: All patients who received insurance-covered CBT in FY2023, with a longitudinal comparison across FY2015-2023. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcomes were annual CBT claims and patient counts. The secondary outcomes included prefecture-level distribution, population-adjusted utilisation rates per 100 000 population, distribution by sex and age, monthly trends and temporal changes over 9 years. Regional variation in physician-delivered CBT was assessed using the coefficient of variation (CV) and extremal quotient (EQ). RESULTS: In FY2023, the total CBT claims numbered 38 045 with 8299 patients, representing only 0.14% of an estimated 6.03 million psychiatric patients. Physician-delivered CBT accounted for 99.6% (37 886 claims), whereas nurse-delivered CBT introduced in 2016 remained at 0.4% (159 claims). 13 of the 47 prefectures (27.7%) had zero or fewer than 10 claims. The population-adjusted physician-delivered CBT claims ranged from 370.96 per 100 000 in Okayama to 0.99 per 100 000 in Kumamoto, yielding an EQ of 375-fold. The CV among the 34 prefectures with measurable physician-delivered CBT was 174.8%. Despite indication expansions in 2016 and 2018, claims decreased by 9.9% from 42 216 in FY2015 to 38 045 in FY2023. CONCLUSIONS: Insurance-covered CBT in Japan remains severely underused, with significant regional disparities. Incremental policy measures, including indication expansions and nurse-delivered CBT, have failed to improve access. Fundamental system reforms, potentially including dedicated psychological therapy services, are needed to ensure equitable access to evidence-based psychological treatments.

References

1. 1.Fujii, T., Nogami, Y., & Seo, T. (2026). Regional disparities in insurance-covered cognitive behavioural therapy in Japan: a nationwide cross-sectional study using National Database Open Data, 2015-2023. BMJ Open. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2025-115722