Cancer risk and screening in transgender and gender-diverse individuals on gender-affirming hormone therapy: a review article for the Australasian context

Clinical Snapshot

Key Findings

• P Value: Not reported

• Effect Size: Not quantified - narrative synthesis only

• Primary Outcome: No consistent, statistically significant increase in common cancers among TGD individuals receiving GAHT

• Nnt Or Sensitivity: Breast cancer risk increases with oestrogen duration but remains lower than cisgender women; prostate cancer may present at higher grade

• Confidence Interval: Not reported

Clinical Application

Organ-inventory approach is practical for general practitioners with appropriate training and cultural competency Directly relevant to Australian Medicare Benefits Schedule cancer screening programs and RACGP guidelines; addresses gaps in current screening frameworks for TGD populations TGD individuals receiving GAHT in Australian and New Zealand primary care settings

Abstract

AIM: We aimed to synthesise current evidence on the association between gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT) and cancer risk in transgender and gender-diverse (TGD) individuals and to provide evidence-based cancer screening recommendations for Australasian general practitioners. METHODS: A systematic review of epidemiological studies, case reports and clinical guidelines was conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Searches were performed across PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus and the Cochrane Library for literature published up to December 2025. Key evidence sources were narratively synthesised to develop practical recommendations tailored to the Australasian context. RESULTS: The available evidence, although limited by short follow-up durations and small cohort sizes, does not demonstrate a consistent, statistically significant increase in common cancers among TGD individuals receiving GAHT. However, emerging case reports highlight novel clinical concerns, including malignancies in surgically constructed tissues (neophallus and neovagina). Breast cancer risk in trans women appears to increase with the duration of oestrogen therapy, though it remains lower than in cisgender women. Prostate cancer may present at a higher grade in trans women receiving oestrogen. Screening participation is consistently lower in TGD populations, often resulting in later-stage diagnoses. CONCLUSION: Cancer screening for TGD individuals should be guided by an organ-inventory approach, based on the organs a person has rather than their gender identity. Clinicians should maintain a low threshold for investigating suspicious lesions, particularly in surgically altered tissues. The development of culturally safe and inclusive primary care environments is paramount to improving screening uptake and ensuring equitable health outcomes for TGD communities in Australia and New Zealand.

References

1. 1.Awadalla, R., Davies, D., Brownie, S., & Rossiter, R. (2026). Cancer risk and screening in transgender and gender-diverse individuals on gender-affirming hormone therapy: a review article for the Australasian context. The New Zealand Medical Journal, 139(1635). https://doi.org/10.26635/6965.7324